Programme: Master of Arts (Political Science)
Term-End Examination: June 2025
IGNOU Course Code: MPS-001
Liberalism is a political ideology that emphasizes individual liberty, equality before law, reason, tolerance and limited government. It emerged in Europe during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries as a reaction against absolute monarchy and feudal privileges. Thinkers like John Locke argued that individuals possess natural rights such as life, liberty and property, and the primary function of the state is to protect these rights.
Political liberalism supports constitutional government, rule of law, separation of powers and civil liberties. Economic liberalism favours free markets and minimal state intervention. Over time, modern liberalism evolved to support welfare measures to ensure real freedom. Thus, liberalism is a dynamic ideology committed to human dignity and freedom.
A welfare state is a system in which the government takes responsibility for ensuring social and economic security for its citizens. It aims to provide minimum standards of living through education, healthcare, social security and employment support. The welfare state emerged in the twentieth century to reduce inequalities produced by capitalism.
Libertarianism emphasizes maximum individual freedom and minimal state intervention. It supports strong property rights, free markets and limited government functions such as defence and law enforcement. Thinkers like Robert Nozick argued that redistribution through taxation violates individual liberty.
Historical materialism, developed by Karl Marx, explains history through material conditions and class struggle. According to Marx, economic relations shape politics, law and ideology. Changes in the mode of production lead to changes in society.
Gramsci argued that ruling classes maintain dominance through consent rather than force. Cultural institutions such as education and media help create acceptance of ruling ideas. He emphasized the role of intellectuals and counter-hegemony in social change.
Fundamentalism stresses strict adherence to religious doctrines, rejection of secularism and intolerance of pluralism. It often resists modern democratic values.
Nationalism emphasizes loyalty to the nation based on shared culture, history or territory. It has inspired liberation movements but also conflicts.
Multiculturalism recognizes cultural diversity and supports minority rights, tolerance and inclusive citizenship.
Fascism is an authoritarian ideology that rejects democracy and liberalism, emphasizing nationalism, militarism and absolute state authority.
Feminism distinguishes biological sex from socially constructed gender roles, arguing that inequality arises from social norms rather than biology.